SACE Psychology · Stage 2
SACE Psychology Stage 2: Cognition & Memory — Flashcards & Quiz
SACE Psychology Stage 2 Cognition & Memory investigates the cognitive processes that shape how we perceive, attend to, store and retrieve information. These 20 free flashcards and 20 true/false quiz questions cover Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store memory model, Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model, Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing theory, selective attention (Broadbent’s filter, Treisman’s attenuation, late-selection models), the cocktail party effect, heuristics and cognitive biases (confirmation bias, anchoring, availability, representativeness), Tulving’s encoding specificity principle, context and state-dependent memory, interference theory (proactive and retroactive), trace decay, eyewitness memory reliability and misinformation effects, schema theory, and the research-design and methodological-evaluation skills assessed across KU, An and Ap criteria. Every card is mapped to the SACE Board Psychology Stage 2 curriculum and builds the cognitive-psychology knowledge required for Stage 2 assessments.
Key Terms
- Multi-Store Model
- Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) linear model of memory with sensory, short-term and long-term stores connected by attention and rehearsal.
- Working Memory
- Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) active workspace model with central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer.
- Encoding Specificity
- Tulving’s principle that retrieval is most effective when cues at recall match those present during encoding — the basis of context-dependent memory.
- Cognitive Bias
- A systematic pattern of deviation from rationality in judgement — examples include confirmation bias, anchoring, availability and representativeness.
- Schema
- A mental framework that organises knowledge and guides both encoding and retrieval — central to Bartlett’s reconstructive memory theory.
- Heuristic
- A mental shortcut that simplifies judgement under uncertainty — efficient but prone to systematic errors (biases).
- Interference
- A cause of forgetting produced by competition between memories — proactive (old disrupts new) and retroactive (new disrupts old).
Sample Flashcards
Q1: Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory.
The multi-store model (1968) proposes three distinct memory stores: sensory memory (brief, high-capacity storage of raw sensory input), short-term memory (limited capacity of 7±2 items, duration ~30 seconds) and long-term memory (unlimited capacity, potentially permanent storage). Information flows linearly through these stores via attention and rehearsal.
Q2: Explain Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed that short-term memory is an active workspace with multiple components: the central executive (attentional control), phonological loop (verbal/acoustic information), visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial information) and episodic buffer (integrates information from subsystems and long-term memory). This model replaced the passive short-term store of the multi-store model.
Q3: What is Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing theory?
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that memory depends on the depth of processing during encoding. Shallow processing (structural — physical appearance, or phonemic — sound) leads to weaker memory traces. Deep processing (semantic — meaning) leads to stronger, more durable memories. Depth of processing, not rehearsal alone, determines retention.
Q4: What is selective attention and how did Broadbent explain it?
Selective attention is the ability to focus on relevant information while filtering out irrelevant stimuli. Broadbent’s filter model (1958) proposed that information is filtered early based on physical characteristics (e.g. pitch, location) before semantic processing. Only attended information passes through the filter for further processing.
Q5: How does Treisman’s attenuation model differ from Broadbent’s filter model?
Treisman (1964) proposed that unattended information is attenuated (weakened) rather than completely blocked. Important stimuli (e.g. your own name) have lower activation thresholds and can break through the attenuated channel. This explains the cocktail party effect — hearing your name in a noisy room — which Broadbent’s model cannot account for.
Q6: What is confirmation bias and how does it affect decision-making?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret and recall information that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. It affects decision-making by creating a distorted view of reality, reinforcing stereotypes and reducing the quality of judgements.
Q7: Explain the anchoring bias and its effect on judgement.
The anchoring bias occurs when people rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making subsequent judgements. Even arbitrary or irrelevant anchors can significantly skew estimates and decisions. Tversky and Kahneman (1974) identified anchoring as one of the key heuristics in human judgement.
Q8: What is the encoding specificity principle?
Tulving’s encoding specificity principle (1973) states that memory retrieval is most effective when the cues present at retrieval match those present at encoding. Context-dependent memory (external environment) and state-dependent memory (internal physiological or emotional state) are both examples of this principle.
Sample Quiz Questions
Q1: The multi-store model proposes that short-term memory has an unlimited capacity.
Answer: FALSE
The multi-store model proposes that short-term memory has a limited capacity of approximately 7±2 items (Miller, 1956). Long-term memory is the store considered to have unlimited capacity.
Q2: The phonological loop in Baddeley’s working memory model processes visual and spatial information.
Answer: FALSE
The phonological loop processes verbal and acoustic information. Visual and spatial information is handled by the visuospatial sketchpad. These are distinct subsystems within the working memory model.
Q3: According to Craik and Lockhart, semantic processing (processing for meaning) produces stronger memory traces than structural processing.
Answer: TRUE
Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing theory states that deeper processing (semantic, for meaning) creates more durable and retrievable memory traces than shallow processing (structural, for physical features or phonemic, for sound).
Q4: Broadbent’s filter model proposes that all incoming information is fully processed before being selected for attention.
Answer: FALSE
Broadbent’s filter model is an early-selection model that proposes information is filtered based on physical characteristics before semantic processing. Only attended information passes through for full processing.
Q5: Treisman’s attenuation model can explain the cocktail party effect, while Broadbent’s model cannot.
Answer: TRUE
Treisman proposed that unattended information is attenuated rather than blocked, allowing important stimuli (like your name) to break through. This explains the cocktail party effect, which Broadbent’s complete filter cannot account for.
Why It Matters
Cognition and memory are at the heart of SACE Psychology Stage 2 because they explain the fundamental processes underlying all human thought, learning and decision-making. The memory models you study — from Atkinson-Shiffrin to Baddeley’s working memory — provide frameworks for understanding how students learn and retain information, making this topic directly relevant to your own study strategies. Cognitive biases like confirmation bias and anchoring affect everything from everyday judgements to jury verdicts and medical diagnoses. By mastering these concepts, you develop critical thinking skills that apply across all areas of psychology and beyond. SACE examiners assess your ability to compare models, evaluate research evidence and apply cognitive principles to real-world scenarios, making this a high-value topic for your overall Stage 2 grade.
Key Concepts
Memory Models
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) and working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) are the two primary frameworks for understanding memory. SACE assessments require you to describe, compare and evaluate both models, citing supporting evidence such as case studies and experimental research.
Attention and Perception
Selective attention models (Broadbent’s filter, Treisman’s attenuation) explain how the brain processes information from the environment. Understanding the differences between early-selection and late-selection models, and the evidence for each, is essential for SACE extended responses.
Cognitive Biases and Heuristics
Confirmation bias, anchoring and other cognitive biases demonstrate systematic errors in human thinking. Tversky and Kahneman’s research on heuristics is foundational knowledge that SACE examiners expect you to apply to real-world decision-making scenarios.
Encoding, Retrieval and Forgetting
Tulving’s encoding specificity principle, interference theory and trace decay theory explain why we remember and forget. Being able to compare these theories and evaluate supporting evidence (Godden & Baddeley, Jenkins & Dallenbach) is a frequently assessed skill in SACE exams.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
- Confusing proactive (old disrupts new) and retroactive (new disrupts old) interference — a frequent Stage 2 error.
- Describing the multi-store and working memory models as competing rather than complementary — working memory replaces the passive STM store but retains the broader multi-store structure.
- Failing to cite specific studies (Miller 1956, Bartlett 1932, Tversky & Kahneman 1974, Loftus & Palmer 1974, Godden & Baddeley 1975) — evidence-based responses score higher.
- Treating heuristics as errors — heuristics are adaptive shortcuts; biases are their systematic-error outputs. The distinction is Stage 2 terminology.
- Claiming flashbulb memories are uniquely accurate — research shows they decay and distort like ordinary memories despite feeling more reliable.
Study Tips
- Draw diagrams of both the multi-store model and working memory model from memory — SACE exams frequently require labelled diagrams with brief descriptions of each component.
- Create a comparison table of Broadbent’s filter model versus Treisman’s attenuation model, listing key claims, supporting evidence and limitations for each.
- Use spaced repetition flashcards to memorise key researchers and dates (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968, Baddeley & Hitch 1974, Craik & Lockhart 1972, Tversky & Kahneman 1974) — specific citations impress SACE examiners.
- Practise applying cognitive biases to everyday scenarios: identify the bias, explain the mechanism and suggest a strategy for reducing its influence.
- Test yourself using retrieval practice (not just re-reading notes) — the research on encoding and retrieval you study in this topic directly supports this study strategy.
- Link cognition topics to other areas of the course: connect memory to Individual Development (childhood amnesia), and cognitive biases to Emotional Regulation (mood-congruent memory).
Related Topics
Exam Prep & Study Notes
Frequently Asked Questions
What does SACE Psychology Stage 2 cover on cognition?
The cognition topic covers memory models (multi-store model, working memory model), levels of processing, selective attention (Broadbent, Treisman), cognitive biases (confirmation bias, anchoring), encoding and retrieval processes, and theories of forgetting (decay, interference).
Are these flashcards aligned to the SACE Board curriculum?
Yes — every flashcard and quiz question is mapped to the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) Board Psychology Stage 2 curriculum for the cognition topic.
How should I study memory models for SACE exams?
Create diagrams of each memory model (Atkinson-Shiffrin, Baddeley & Hitch) and practise labelling components. Use spaced repetition flashcards to memorise key researchers and studies, then test yourself with the quiz questions to reinforce retrieval practice.
Last updated: March 2026 · 20 flashcards · 20 quiz questions · Content aligned to the SACE Board